Direct drive generator-equipped with flux pump and integrated cryogenics

ABSTRACT

This invention relates generally to a generator having a rotor with a rotor structure, a set of flux pumps secured to the rotor structure and a cooling system secured to the rotor structure for cooling each one of the flux pumps. The flux pump includes separate superconducting loops in separate layers with each superconducting loop including a plurality of sections in revolutions in its respective layer. Each cooling system includes a compressor, heat exchanger, expansion valve, and cryocooler inline with one another. The rotor is rotatably mounted to a stator component through a bearing. A power supply circuit includes components integrated within the rotor for providing power to the flux pump and the compressor.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/508,535, filed on Jul. 15, 2011 all of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1). Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to a flux pump, a machine having a flux pump, and a machine having integrated cryogenics.

2). Discussion of Related Art

With the discovery of superconductivity above the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77K) in the High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS) came a tremendous effort aimed at producing useful commercial devices with these materials. One such device is a flux pump. Flux pumps and their functioning are described in “Fully superconducting rectifiers and fluxpumps, Part I: Realized methods for pumping flux,” by L. J. M. van de Klundert and H. H. J. ten Kate, pages 195-206, Cryogenics, April 1981 and “On fully superconducting rectifiers and fluxpumps. A Review. Part 2: Commutation modes, characteristics and switches,” b L. J. M van der Klundert and H. H. J. ten Kate, pages 267-277, Cryogenics, May 1981.

Flux pumps may prove to be useful for various applications because of their ability to store large amount of energy and to generate large magnetic fields. Promising future applications are however hampered by various factors such as the materials that they are made from, manufacturing techniques, configurability for particular applications, cooling and non-stationary applications.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides a flux pump including a plurality of superconducting components arranged to form one or more superconducting loops, said one or more superconducting loops including a plurality of sections in respective revolutions in a first layer such that a first one of the sections is located within a second one of the sections in the first layer.

The invention also provides a machine including a rotor. The rotor includes a rotor structure having a rotation axis, a first set of magnetic components secured to the rotor structure about the rotation axis, and at least one cooling system that may have a compressor secured to the rotor structure, a heat exchanger secured to the rotor structure inline after the compressor, an expansion valve secured to the rotor structure inline after the heat exchanger; and a cryocooler secured to the rotor structure inline after the expansion valve and before the compressor.

The invention further provides a machine including first and second structures that are mounted for movement relative to one another, and a first and second set of magnetic components mounted to the first and second structures respectively so that a magnetic field generated by a magnet of the first set couples to a magnet of the second set, wherein at least one of the magnets is a flux pump that includes a plurality of superconducting components arranged to form at least one superconducting loop.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention is further described by way of example with reference to the accompanying drawings wherein:

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment having ceramic superconducting particles disposed in a metal matrix material;

FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating the variation of the superconducting gap magnitude near a boundary between a superconductor and a metal;

FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating the variation of the superconducting gap magnitude near a boundary between a superconductor and a metal having a low λ value;

FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating the variation of the superconducting gap magnitude near a boundary between a superconductor and a metal having a high λ value;

FIG. 5 illustrates the extent of the superconducting proximity effect around a particle of superconducting material disposed within a metal matrix;

FIG. 6 shows how a number of superconducting particles disposed in a metal matrix provide a continuous supercurrent path through the matrix material;

FIG. 7 is a graph of critical current density (Jc) versus volume % matrix material for four different matrix materials (silver, aluminum, indium, and lead), the plot illustrates that high lambda metals are better proximity superconductors than low lambda metals. The ceramic superconductor material used was Nb₃Sn;

FIG. 8 is a graph of critical temperature (Tc) versus volume % matrix material for four different matrix materials (silver, aluminum, indium, and lead);

FIG. 9 is a graph of E-field vs. current density, illustrating the meaning of an n-value for a superconducting material, as is known in the art;

FIG. 10 is a graph of n-value versus volume % matrix material for four different matrix materials (silver, aluminum, indium, and lead);

FIG. 11 is a graph of Jc versus normalized electron-phonon coupling constant for different matrix materials;

FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the present invention where the superconductor particles are coated with a chemically compatible metal coating to chemically protect the superconductor particles from the metal matrix materials;

FIG. 13 is a graph of critical density versus normalized electron-phonon coupling constant for the embodiment of FIG. 12 having a silver coating surrounding each superconductor particle;

FIG. 14 is a graph illustrating the prevailing, incorrect model of the superconducting proximity effect in a three-layer system;

FIG. 15 is a graph illustrating the current model of the superconducting proximity effect in a 3-layer system, as developed by the present inventor;

FIG. 16 is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the present invention using HTS ceramics as the superconducting particles. The particles are coated with a thin coating of noble metal that is not oxidized by the HTS ceramics particles;

FIG. 17 illustrates how the embodiment of FIG. 16 provides a continuous supercurrent path through the matrix material;

FIG. 18 is a side view of a sheet of protective material with superconductor particles in granular form deposited thereon;

FIG. 19 is a view similar to FIG. 18 wherein the superconductor particles are spread over the sheet;

FIG. 20 is a view similar to FIG. 19 after another sheet of protective material is located on the superconductor particles;

FIG. 21 is a perspective view of a composite sheet which is formed after a sheet of conductive material is located on the top protective sheet of FIG. 20;

FIG. 22 is a perspective view of an elongate member that is formed by folding, or rolling the composite sheet of FIG. 21;

FIG. 23 is a side view illustrating how the elongate member of FIG. 22 is rolled into a wire;

FIG. 24 is a cross-sectional view of the elongate member before being rolled;

FIG. 25 is a cross-sectional view of the wire after being rolled;

FIG. 26 is a cross-sectional view on 26-26 of the wire in FIG. 25 illustrating how the conductive material is induced to a superconductive state by the superconductor particles;

FIG. 27 is a cross-sectional view illustrating a two component wire that is made according to a method similar to that of FIG. 25;

FIG. 28 is a cross-sectional view on 28-28 of the wire of FIG. 27;

FIG. 29 is a graph illustrating the increased performance of gallium-based superconducting nanocomposite (ScNc) tape;

FIG. 30 is perspective view of one layer of a flux pump according to an embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 31 is a perspective view of the flux pump;

FIG. 32 is a perspective exploded view of components of a flux pump according to an alternate embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 33 is a side view of a machine in the form of a generator according to an embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 34 is a partial perspective view in exploded form of components of a rotor of the generator; and

FIG. 35 is a side view of a machine in the form of a motor according to an alternate embodiment of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Materials and Compositions

FIG. 1 shows a magnified view of a composite material 20 according to the present invention. The composite material 20 has superconductor particles 22 made of brittle superconducting ceramic disposed in a metal matrix material 24. The superconductor particles 22 can have a wide range of sizes, and the sizes of the particles 22 do not need to be uniform. The particles preferably have sizes generally within the range of 1.5 nanometers to 10 microns in diameter, for example. The particles 22 are made of a brittle superconducting ceramic, such as an A15 compound, AB family superconductors, Laves phase superconductors, Chevrel phase superconductors, metallic borides or the like. Preferably, the particles are made of a material having a relatively high critical temperature (e.g., greater than 20 Kelvin). Also preferably, the particles have high critical magnetic fields (e.g., greater than 5T). In general, the superconductor particles preferably have robust superconducting properties.

There are preferably no insulating contaminants between the superconductor particles 22 and the metal matrix material 24. A thin layer of grease, oxide or any other insulating material between the superconductor particles and metal matrix material can seriously degrade the superconducting properties of the composite material 20 by impeding supercurrent flow through the superconductor particle/metal matrix interface.

The particles 22 preferably have dimensions larger than the superconducting coherence length of the superconducting ceramic. Preferably, the superconductor particles have dimensions of about 3-500 times the superconducting coherence length of the superconductor particles, more preferably, the superconductor particles are about 5 to 10 times larger than the superconducting coherence length of the ceramic material. For most superconductor particle materials, it is preferable for the intrinsic superconductor particles to have dimensions less than 10 microns. The best size range depends upon the temperature at which the composite material is used, the eletron-phonon coupling constant λ of the metal matrix material, the superconductor coherence length of the superconductor particles, the proximity effect decay length of the metal matrix material, and the inelastic mean free path of the metal matrix material (explained below), and possibly other factors.

For example, the A15 superconducting compounds (e.g., Nb₃Sn, Nb₃Ge, Nb₃Al, V₃Ga, V₃Si, V₃Al, V₃In, Nb₃Ga, V₃Ge, Nb₃Ge, Nb₃Si, Ta₃Pb, Ta₃Au and Mo₃R) generally have superconducting coherence lengths of approximately 2-3 nanometers. Therefore, for A15 compounds, the superconductor particles preferably have dimensions greater than 2-3 nanometers. For A15 compounds, particle sizes are preferably in the range of 100-5000 nm, or more preferably 10-500 nanometers. Larger sizes are also possible, but are typically less preferred because they may produce composites having less than optimal superconducting and mechanical properties.

Table 1 below lists several candidate materials useful for the intrinsic superconductor particles, their coherence lengths and their critical temperatures.

TABLE 1 Candidate Superconductor Materials Family/ Critical Maximum Coherence Superconductor Phase Temperature Length A15 A15 11-25 K 2-3 nm COMPOUNDS MoC AB 14.3 K NbN AB 17.3 K 4.0 nm ZrN AB 10.7 K CaRh₂ Laves 6.4 K CaIr₂ Laves 6.2 K ZrV₃ LAVES 9.6 K 4.5 nm HfV₂ LAVES 9.4 K 3.9 nm Mo₆S₈ CHEVREL 1.6 K Cu₂Mo₆S₈ Chevrel 10.7 K Yb_(1.2)Mo₆S₈ Chevrel 8.7 K LaMo₆S₈ CHEVREL 6.6 K 7.8 nm La Mo₆S CHEVREL 11.7 K Pb_(0.9)Mo₆S_(7.5) Chevrel 15.2 K 2.0 nm PbMo₆S₈ Chevrel 12.6 K 2.3 nm BrMo₆S₈ CHEVREL 13.8 K MgB₂ METALLIC 40.2 K 5 nm BORIDES

Ceramics useful for the intrinsic superconductor particles are not necessarily limited to those listed in Table 1.

The metal matrix material 24 is preferably made of a ductile metal (elemental metal, metal alloy, or metal mixture) that is susceptible to the superconducting proximity effect. In order to be susceptible to the proximity effect, the metal matrix material preferably has a high electron-boson coupling coefficient, typically an electron-phonon coupling coefficient, λ (a unitless number). The metal matrix material must have a λ greater than 0.2. More preferably the metal matrix material has a λ greater than 0.5, and most preferably the metal matrix material has a λ greater than 1.0. All else being equal, the higher the λ, the better. This is because the susceptibility to the proximity effect increases with λ. Table 2 below shows candidate matrix materials and their electron-phonon coupling coefficients.

TABLE 2 Candidate Metal Matrix Materials Metal Electron-Phonon Coupling, λ Lead 1.55 Tin 0.72 NbTi 0.92 Niobium (Nb) 1.22 Gallium 2.25 Bismuth 2.45 Mercury 1.62 Tantalum 0.69 Titanium 0.8 Vanadium 0.8 Indium 0.81 Ti_(0.9)Bi_(0.1) 0.78 Pb_(0.4)Ti_(0.6) 1.38 Pb_(0.9)Bi_(0.1) 1.66 Pb_(0.75)Bi_(0.25) 2.76 Pb_(0.7)Bi_(0.3) 2.01 Lead/Indium Alloys >1.5 Lead/Bismuth Alloys generally 2.3

Metals useful for the metal matrix material are not necessarily limited to those listed in Table 2. Many of the metal matrix materials in Table 2 are elemental materials (e.g., Lead, Tin, Niobium). These elemental materials are typically Type I superconductors and generally are not suitable for use in high magnetic field applications. For high magnetic field applications, Type II superconductors (e.g., metal alloys) should be used for the metal matrix materials. Examples of Type II alloys are NbTi and Lead-Bismuth alloys. Also, it is known that some elemental metals act as Type II superconductors if under sufficient mechanical stress. Stressed Niobium, for example, acts as a Type II superconductor and can be used as a metal matrix material in high magnetic field applications, though well annealed, unstressed niobium is a classic Type I superconductor.

Also, the metal matrix material preferably has a long proximity effect decay length. The proximity effect decay length is a fundamental material property. The decay length is a result of dephasing of electron and hole wave functions as they travel through the matrix material (due to different electron and hole velocities). The decay length is typically not as important as λ because most candidate materials have similar decay lengths. Table 3 shows decay lengths for selected candidate materials. It is noted that the decay length is inversely proportional to absolute temperature.

TABLE 3 Decay Lengths for Selected Matrix Materials Proximity Effect Decay Metal Length at 77 K in nm Lead 29 Tin 30 NbTi 22 NbTi, (Nb) 22 Mercury 25 Indium 28 Lead/Bismuth Alloys 25-28

The superconductor particles 22 preferably have a critical temperature higher than the critical temperature of the metal matrix material 24.

FIG. 2 shows a diagram illustrating the superconducting proximity effect as it occurs at a boundary 27 between a superconductor 26 and a metal 28 susceptible to the proximity effect. A superconducting gap magnitude provides a measure of superconductivity. The superconducting gap magnitude is proportional to the critical temperature and the critical current density in a superconducting material. In the metal the gap magnitude 29 is relatively high close to the boundary 27, and decreases with distance from the boundary. The metal 28 is superconducting close to the boundary 27 due to contact with the superconductor 26. The superconducting gap magnitude in the metal decreases with increasing distance from the boundary 27. The characteristic length of the decay of the superconducting gap magnitude in the metal is the proximity effect decay length.

FIG. 3 shows a diagram illustrating the superconducting gap magnitude in the case where the metal has a low electron-phonon coupling coefficient (λ less than 0.2). The gap magnitude 29 in the metal is relatively small, and therefore the metal has relatively small critical current density. The metal has poor superconducting properties due to the low λ value. Examples of materials with low λ include silver with λ=0.14, gold with λ=0.14, and copper with λ=0.08. These materials are very good conductors, but have poor superconducting properties. Therefore, they are preferably not used as the metal matrix material.

FIG. 4 shows a diagram illustrating the superconducting gap magnitude in the case where the metal has a high electron-phonon coupling coefficient (λ greater than 1.0). The gap magnitude 29 in the metal is relatively large compared to the gap magnitude in FIG. 3. The high λ results in the metal having a larger critical current density extending deeper into the metal layer. The proximity decay length of the metal also plays a role.

In the present invention (e.g., the embodiment shown in FIG. 1), the superconductor particles 22 are superconducting at the operating temperature, and the metal matrix material is induced superconducting through the superconducting proximity effect, even though its superconducting transition temperature may be below the operating temperature. FIG. 5 shows a single isolated superconductor particle 32 disposed in a block 34 of metal matrix material. When cooled below the critical temperature of the particle 32 (but not necessarily below the critical temperature of the metal matrix material block 34), the superconductor particle 32 causes portions of the block close to the superconductor particle to become superconducting due to the proximity effect. Circle 36 illustrates the approximate range of the proximity effect. The circle 36 is relatively large if the metal matrix material has a high λ value and long proximity decay length; the circle is relatively small if the metal matrix material has a small λ value and/or short proximity decay length. If the metal matrix material block is made of silver, gold, or copper, for example, the circle 36 will extend only a very small distance beyond the surface of the superconductor particle and the block will have essentially no useful superconductivity.

FIG. 6 shows an idealized embodiment of the present invention in which all the superconductor particles 22 are arranged linearly in the metal matrix material 34. Circles 36 illustrate the approximate range of the superconducting proximity effect within which superconducting gap has a magnitude great enough to provide a useful critical current density. The particles 22 are close enough so that the circles imply that the particles 50 are coupled by a continuous superconducting path due to the proximity effect. The path 38 can pass through the superconductor particles 22 and the superconducting regions of the metal matrix, or can pass only through the superconducting regions of the metal matrix material 34. Very large superconductor particles (with dimensions much greater than the range of the proximity effect) are usually not preferred due to ‘voids’ in the metal matrix material that were larger than the range of the proximity effect. Generally, the superconductor particles are preferably small enough and numerous enough so that substantially all the metal matrix material is affected by the proximity effect. Of course, the optimum size of the superconductor particles depends somewhat on the volume percent of superconductor particle material versus matrix material, and the temperature at which the composite material is used.

In FIG. 1, the superconductor particles 22 are close enough and numerous enough so that essentially the entire volume of the metal matrix material is induced into a superconducting state by the proximity effect when cooled below the critical temperature of the superconductor particles 22. Therefore, the entire volume of the composite material is superconducting when cooled below the critical temperature of the superconductor particles 22.

An important consideration in the present invention is the relative volume of the superconductor particles and the metal matrix material. The optimal percentages (measured by volume) of superconductor particles and metal matrix material depend greatly on the mechanical and superconducting properties of the materials used, and the desired mechanical and superconducting properties of the composite material. For example, if very high ductility is desired of the composite material, then a high percentage of the very ductile metal matrix material should be used.

Also, the temperature at which the composite is to be used has bearing on the composite design. The proximity effect decay length increases with decreasing temperature. Therefore, for a composite used at very low temperatures, the superconductor particles 22 can be located relatively far apart. If the composite is to be used at relatively high temperatures, then the superconductor particles 22 are preferably located relatively close together.

There are many possible combinations (e.g., thousands) of superconductor particle materials and metal matrix materials within the scope of the present invention. Each possible combination may also be improved or optimized by selecting the best superconductor particle volume/matrix material volume ratio. Also, each material combination may be improved or optimized by selecting the best size range for the superconductor particles. Further, there may be special chemical compatibility issues for certain combinations for superconductor particle materials and metal matrix materials. In general, chemical reactivity between the particles and metal matrix material should be avoided, particularly if the reactivity is destructive to the superconducting properties of the superconductor particles, or if the reactivity is destructive to the superconducting properties of the metal matrix material, or if the reactivity degrades the electrical contact between the superconductor particles and the metal matrix (e.g., by producing an insulating layer at the particle/matrix interface).

FIG. 7 shows critical current densities for several different material combinations at 4.2K. The different material combinations are Nb₃Sn superconductor particles dispersed within silver, aluminum, indium and lead. A cross 40 represents the critical current density for pure compacted Nb₃Sn superconductor particles (e.g., a powder-in-tube Nb₃Sn wire). In all the composites represented in FIG. 7, the Nb₃Sn superconducting particles were −325 mesh, which corresponds to particle sizes in the range of about 1-40 microns. It is possible the critical current densities of the composites could be improved by using superconductor particles with more uniform sizes. The critical current density was determined by the standard 0.1μV/cm electric field criterion.

FIG. 7 demonstrates that a composite of Nb₃Sn particles in a silver matrix has a dramatically reduced supercurrent carrying capacity compared to pure compressed Nb₃Sn particles. This is because silver has a very low λ and is therefore only very weakly susceptible to the superconducting proximity effect.

Similarly, the composite material which consists of Nb₃Sn superconductor particles embedded in an aluminum matrix has a reduced Jc relative to the pure Nb₃Sn particles because aluminum has a relatively low λ of 0.43. However, the composite which consists of Nb₃Sn superconductor particles embedded in an indium matrix has an improved Jc relative to pure Nb₃Sn, Nb₃Sn/silver, or Nb₃Sn/aluminum materials. FIG. 7 indicated that the optimum amount of indium is about 10-35% by volume. Indium improves the Jc of the composite because indium, with a λ of 0.81, has relatively high susceptibility to the superconducting proximity effect. Similarly, lead also improves the Jc of the composite because lead, with a λ of 1.55, also has a high susceptibility to the superconducting proximity effect. However, embedding the Nb₃Sn superconductor particles in the lead matrix does not improve the Jc as much as would be expected from its λ value. This is because the tin (Sn) within the Nb₃Sn tends to offset the Jc improvement provided by the high λ of lead. This effect of chemical reactivity is worsened by heating the composite material. Several possibilities for avoiding this effect are discussed below.

FIG. 8 shows critical temperatures (Tcs) for some of the same composite materials plotted in FIG. 7. Bulk Nb₃Sn has a Tc of 18K. However, the Tc of pure compacted Nb₃Sn powder is about 10K, which is indicated in the graph at 42. This low value for Tc reflects the poor inter-particle contact between the Nb₃Sn superconductor particles in a compacted material. FIG. 8 shows that the addition of silver or aluminum to Nb₃Sn particles dramatically decreases the Tc compared to pure compacted Nb₃Sn particles. Aluminum has a Tc of 1.4K and silver is not superconducting at any temperature. By comparison, indium, which has Tc of 3.2K dramatically increases the Tc of the Nb₃Sn/indium composite to over 10K. This is a striking result considering that Indium has a Tc less than 10K. Indium increases the Tc of the composite because indium has a relatively high λ of 0.81 and is thus quite susceptible to the superconducting proximity effect. Similarly, lead increases the Tc of the Nb₃Sn/lead composite because lead has a λ=1.55. The effect of the high λ of lead is offset due to the chemical reactivity between lead and Nb₃Sn. It is expected that further increases in the critical temperature of Nb₃Sn/lead composites would be realized if not for the dissociation of tin from Nb₃Sn when in the presence of lead.

The composites of the present invention can be adjusted to have desired ‘n-values’. FIG. 9 illustrates the concept of an n-value as is known in the art. The n-value of superconducting material describes the sharpness of the conversion to the normal state when the critical current density is exceeded. Generally, the n-value is defined by the relation:

V/Vc=(I/Ic)^(n),

Where I and V are the current and electric field as measured over a known length in the wire. Vc is the electric field criterion standard (typically 0.1μV/cm), and Ic is the critical current of the composite which is defined as the magnitude of current passing through the composite which results in an electric field of at least Vc existing in the composite. An n-value of 1 corresponds to Ohms Law for a normal resistive metal. The n-value can be an important characteristic for certain superconductor applications. For example, in fault-current limiters for electrical power distribution application, it is highly desirable to have a very high n-value so that current surges are efficiently attenuated. Such devices are operated very close to Ic. A current surge exceeds Ic and pushes the device into normal conduction, thereby limiting the current by inserting an impedance. The present invention can provide a composite for fault current limiters that have a very high n-value (generally at the expense of a lower Jc or Tc). Conversely, superconducting wire for electric motors should have a relatively low n-value so that large, sudden changes in motor impedance are not produced by current surges and so that changes in motor load do not result in current surges. The present invention provides flexibility so that specific n-values can be provided.

FIG. 10 plots n-values for several Nb₃Sn/metal matrix composites made with silver, aluminum, indium and lead matrix materials. The n-value for a pure compressed Nb₃Sn superconductor particles is about 10. Embedding Nb₃Sn superconductor particles in a matrix of silver or aluminum reduces the n-value compared to pure compressed Nb₃Sn particles. Embedding Nb₃Sn superconductor particles in a matrix of 10-35% indium by volume increases the n-value. Embedding Nb₃Sn superconductor particles in a matrix of lead increases the n-value. The n-value for lead is measured to be about 70. The measured n-values for Nb₃Sn/lead composites are not consistent because of variations caused by the reactivity between the Nb₃Sn and lead. Since silver, aluminum, indium and lead have different effect on the n-value, a desired n-value can be produced by using a combination (mixture) of these metals for the matrix material. For example, a combination of lead and silver will produce a wire having a reduced n-value compared to a wire with a matrix of pure lead. By selecting appropriate ratios of different metal matrix materials, a desired n-value is provided.

FIG. 11 shows a graph of the normalized electron-boson coupling constant versus critical current density. The normalized electron-boson coupling constant includes the effect of the screened electron-electron Coulomb repulsion μ*. For most materials, the screened electron-electron Coulomb repulsion is about 0.1.

The normalized electron-boson coupling constant is given by

(λ−μ*)/(1+λ).

The normalized electron-boson coupling constant is proportional to the superconducting gap magnitude in a metal adjacent to a superconductor and therefore is a more accurate measure of proximity effect susceptibility than the electron-boson coupling coefficient λ. The normalized electron-boson coupling constant values for silver, aluminum, indium, and lead are about 0.03, 0.19, 0.38 and 0.55, respectively. FIG. 11 illustrates that Jc increases strongly with increasing λ and normalized electron-boson coupling constant. These results suggest that very high λ materials such as lead-bismuth alloys will provide very high Jc's significantly exceeding 100 kA/cm² if added to the composite in sufficient quantity. Also, these results suggest that, if all other factors are constant, higher normalized electron-boson coupling constants are always better.

FIG. 11 also demonstrates that too much matrix material strongly reduces the Jc of the composite material unless the normalized electron-boson coupling is very high. The higher the normalized electron-boson coupling constant of the matrix material, the more matrix coupling constant of the matrix material, the higher the optimal volume % of matrix material for maximum Jc. In other words, for maximum Jc, matrix materials with higher reduced phonon coupling should comprise higher volume % of the composite material. For matrix materials with λ in the range of about 1.5-2, it is estimated that the matrix material should comprise about 25-50% of the composite by volume.

The reaction between lead and Nb₃Sn causes degradation of the superconducting properties of Nb₃Sn/lead composites. Also, the superconducting properties are unstable and may deteriorate when the composite is exposed to heat which promotes the reaction. Therefore, Nb₃Sn/lead does not provide a good superconducting composite. As noted above, the tin dissociates from the Nb₃Sn and dissolves in the lead.

Generally the A15 compounds tend to be somewhat unstable. If a component of the A15 compound is soluble in the matrix material or binds with the matrix material, then this can promote the dissociation of the A15 compound. For this reason it is best to use A15 compounds having constituents which are insoluble in the metal matrix material or have a low affinity for the metal matrix material. This helps prevent the A15 compound from dissociating and degrading the properties of the composite. For example, if lead is used as a matrix material, other A15 compounds not containing tin can be used.

Most generally, any chemical reactivity between the superconductor particles and metal matrix material should be avoided if it adversely effects the superconducting properties of the superconductor particles, the metal matrix materials, or the superconductor particle/metal matrix interface. In all the embodiments of the present invention, the particles are made of superconducting ceramics. Any metal matrix material that promotes the chemical breakdown of the superconductor particles should be avoided. Lead is an example of the metal matrix material that promotes the chemical breakdown of Nb₃Sn.

FIG. 12 shows an alternative embodiment of the present invention which uses Nb₃Sn superconductor particles 46 and lead as the matrix material 48. Each Nb₃Sn superconductor particle 46 has a thin metal film coating 44 which prevents chemical reactions from occurring between the Nb₃Sn superconductor particles 46 and lead matrix material 48. The coating is chemically compatible with the particles 46 and is chemically compatible with the metal matrix material 48. The coating 44 can be made of many different materials but is preferably metallic and electrically conductive. The coating can be silver, for example. The coating 44 should be thin enough so that the proximity effect from the Nb₃Sn superconductor particles 46 can reach the lead matrix material. This is preferably accomplished by making the coating 44 as thin as possible while still providing chemical isolation between the Nb₃Sn superconductor particles and lead. More specifically, the coating should be substantially thinner than the inelastic electron mean free path (MFP) of the coating material at the temperature that composite material is used (e.g., the critical temperature of the particles). For silver, which does not react with Nb₃Sn the MFP is about 600 nanometers at 18 Kelvin, the Tc for Nb₃Sn. More preferably, the coating thickness is less than ½ or ¼ of the electron MFP at the Tc of the superconducting particles.

Preferably, the metal coating is thinner than an electron mean free path in the metal coating material at 4.2 Kelvin. Also, the metal coating is preferably thinner than a proximity effect decay length of the metal coating material at 4.2 Kelvin.

It is noted that metals with a long election MFP tend to have low λ values and are therefore are not susceptible to the proximity effect. However, a long mean free path in the coating increases the ‘penetration’ of the proximity effect through the coating. A coating material with a high λ and short MFP will tend to reduce the proximity effect in the matrix, but in this case the coating itself will be more susceptible to the proximity effect. Generally, if a coating is applied to the superconductor particles, a balance is preferably provided between the coating thickness, electron mean free path, and λ value. For example, a very thick silver coating (much thicker than the silver MFP) would be undesirable because the silver is not susceptible to the proximity effect, and the silver coating would reduce the proximity effect in the matrix. In general, if low λ, high MFP coating is used, it should be as thin as possible while still preventing chemical reactions between the particles and matrix materials. For example, 5-10 nanometers of silver can be sufficient for preventing certain chemical reactions, and the MFP for silver is much greater than 10 nm at temperatures necessary for superconductivity. If a high lambda low MFP coating is used, the optimal thickness depends on the coating λ and the MFP, as well as the metal matrix material λ.

Table 4 shows several metals which can be used for a metal coating in case where chemical incompatibility exists between the superconductor particles and the metal matrix material. The MFP increases with decreasing temperature. The MFP depends upon the microstructure of the material and so may vary from the values shown (e.g., depending on the process used to make the coating).

TABLE 4 Candidate Metal Coating Metals Inelastic mean free Metal path at 77 Kelvin Silver 285 nm Gold 205 nm Aluminum 131 nm Copper 328 nm Tin 100 nm Lead 141 nm

FIG. 13 shows experimental results for four composites having Nb₃Sn superconductor particles coated with about 100 nanometers of silver. The coated superconductor particles are disposed in silver, aluminum, indium or lead matrix materials (the silver coating is not considered part of the matrix material). The Jc's for the four composites are indicated by X's. In each of the four composites, the silver coating comprises about 5% of the composite volume. The matrix material (silver, aluminum, indium, or lead) comprises about 15% of the composite volume. The silver coating prevents chemical reactions between the Nb₃Sn superconductor particles. The important point here is the high-λ metals (e.g., indium, lead) increase the Jc of the composite compared to low-λ matrix materials. This is remarkable considering that the matrix is separated from the Nb₃Sn particles by 100 nanometers of silver. The proximity effect extends through the silver coating. If the proximity effect did not extend through the 100 nm silver coating, the Jc for the indium and lead matrix composites would be the same as for the Nb₃Sn/silver matrix composite or essentially zero (i.e., less than 10 A/cm²). The fact that indium and lead dramatically increase the Jc while not in direct physical contact with the superconductor particles is proof that the proximity effect extends through the silver coating. It is noted that the silver coating does negatively impact the wire performance somewhat. This negative impact is preferably minimized by reducing the thickness of the silver coating (e.g., to less than 120 nanometers). For example, a silver coating of 100 nanometers is unnecessarily thick, but can be used.

Prior to the development of the present invention, it was mistakenly assumed by many in the field of superconductivity that the proximity effect could not extend through a thin layer of low-λ metal (such as the noble metals in Table 4). FIG. 14 illustrates the prevailing but incorrect understanding of what was expected in such a ‘three-layer’ system. The superconductor 26 is separated from a high-λ metal 62 by a thin layer of low-λ metal 60. The low-λ metal has a very small superconducting gap magnitude in the high-λ metal. This model of the proximity effect in the three-layer system is absolutely incorrect.

FIG. 15 illustrates the correct model of the superconducting proximity effect in a three-layer system. Remarkably and surprisingly, the superconducting gap magnitude 66 rebounds in the high-λ metal to a value possibly much higher than the gap magnitude in the low-λ metal 60. The ability of the gap magnitude to rebound in a three-layer system has been confirmed in experiments performed by the present inventor. Of course, in order for the superconducting gap to rebound, the high-λ metal must have a λ substantially higher than the λ of the low-λ metal. The rebounding effect provides the physical basis of operation of the composite materials of the present invention which employ a low-λ metal coating surrounding of the superconductor particles. For example, it is the rebounding effect which provides the improved Jc in the composite material having silver-coated Nb₃Sn superconductor particles in a lead matrix (explained with reference to FIGS. 12 and 13). It is important to note that the low-λ metal is minimized by making the low-λ coating as thin as possible, and by using a low-λ coating with a long MFP.

It is noted that, although the foregoing embodiments of the present invention have been primarily explained with reference to Nb₃Sn as the superconductor particle material, the superconducting particles can be made of many other superconducting compounds and ceramics. Also, the superconducting particles can be made of a mixture of materials (i.e., each superconductor particles within the same composite can be made of different superconducting compounds or ceramics). The choice of superconductor particle material and matrix material is an important one, and depends upon the mechanical, electrical and chemical characteristics of the superconductor particles and matrix materials as well as the desired properties of the composite material (e.g., ductility, critical current density, n-value, critical temperature, chemical reactivity). For many material combination, optimal volume ratios and superconductor particle sizes (e.g., producing the highest Jc, the highest Tc, the highest/lowest n-value, highest ductility) can be found by routine experimentation using the guidance and teaching of the present description.

The composites of the foregoing embodiments are in the form of single filament wire and arc simple to manufacture using powder-in-tube methods known in the art. First, a powder of superconducting particles is thoroughly mixed with a metal matrix material. Each constituent material in the composition is preferably clean and free of contaminants. Preferably, the superconductor particles and matrix material are handled in an inert atmosphere. The mixture is placed within a billet such as a copper, silver, aluminum, or rubber tube, though any non-reactive tube will work also. Next, the powder mixture is compressed in the billet, for example using a cold isostatic press. The compression step removes the majority of the voids from the composite material. Optionally, the compression step is performed in vacuum so that the void volume is minimized. Next, the billet containing the fused material is drawn in to a wire using known wire drawing techniques. Annealing steps may be required between the drawing steps. It is noted that the typical powder metallurgical techniques may leave voids comprising about 10-20% of the composite volume.

The relative volumes of the superconductor particles and metal matrix material is determined by the amount of the material originally mixed together.

If it is desired to provide the superconductor particles with a noble metal coating (e.g., a silver coating), then this coating is preferably applied before mixing the superconductor particles with the metal matrix material. The coating can be applied using known chemical or physical deposition techniques.

An alternative method for making composite material begins by coating the superconductor particles with a coating of metal matrix material. The thickness of the coating is preferably controlled accurately. The interface between the superconductor particles and the metal matrix material coating is preferably clean and free of grease, oxides and any other insulating contaminants. Next to form a wire from the composite material, the metal matrix coated superconductor particles are placed in the billet, compressed, and drawn into a wire. The relative volumes of the intrinsic superconductor particles and metal matrix material is determined by the size of the superconductor particles and the thickness of the metal matrix material coating. Of course, the composite material of the present invention can be made into any other shape such as bars, rods, sheets, or plates.

A very special set of embodiments of the present invention employ the high temperature superconductor (HTS) ceramic materials (HTS ceramics). In the present specification, HTS ceramics are defined as having a critical temperature greater than 30 Kelvin. Several examples of suitable HTS ceramics are given in Table 5. The HTS ceramic YBa₂Cu₃O₇ is preferred for many applications (e.g., wire in high magnetic fields) because of its high flux pinning strength and high Tc.

TABLE 5 Ceramic Superconductors HTS Ceramic Critical Temperature, T_(C) Bi₂Sr₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀ 105 K Bi₂Sr₂CaCu₂O₈ 85 K (BiPb)₂Sr₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀ 110 K Tl₂Ba₂Ca₂Cu₃O₁₀ 125 K HgBa₂CaCu₂O₆ 135 K HgBa₂Ca₂Cu₂O₆ 135 K Tl₂Ba₂CuO₆ 80 K La_(1.8)Sr_(0.15)CuO₄ 40 K Tl₂Ba₂CaCu₂O₈ 105 K

The HTS ceramics listed above are strong oxidizing agents and will oxidize on contact all but the most noble (nonreactive) metals. Silver, gold, and palladium, for example, are not oxidized by contact with the HTS ceramics. However, these metals have very low electron-phonon coupling coefficients and are very poor proximity superconductors. Table 6 lists the electron-phonon coefficients for some noble metals not oxidized by the HTS ceramics.

TABLE 6 Electron-phonon Coefficients for Some Noble Metals Metal Electron-phonon coupling, λ Silver 0.14 Gold 0.14 Palladium <0.10 (approximate)

Generally, the noble metals have very low electron-phonon coupling coefficients. This explains why prior art composite superconductor wires made with HTS ceramic particles in a silver matrix have relatively low Jc values and are sensitive to mechanical stress. In these wires, the supercurrent tends to flow directly between HTS ceramic particles where they are superconducting). Consequently, supercurrent paths are disturbed when the material is flexed. Silver, gold, and palladium are very weakly susceptible to the proximity effect due to their very low λ values.

If HTS ceramic particles are disposed in a matrix of a non-noble metal (e.g., lead, indium, tin, NbTi or any other metals known to react with the HTS ceramics), an insulating metal oxide coating forms at the interface between the HTS ceramic particles and the non-noble metal. The metal oxide coating almost completely blocks the proximity effects and blocks supercurrent from flowing between adjacent HTS ceramic particles. A composite material having HTS ceramic particles in a matrix of oxidizable metal is almost completely useless as a superconductor due to the insulating metal oxide coating. The oxidizable non-noble metals cannot be combined with HTS ceramic particles in a composite material to make a useful superconducting composite employing the proximity effect.

There is presently no known material that resists oxidation by the HTS ceramics and has a high λ (e.g., λ greater than 1.0). If such a metal is found or created, it could be combined with HTS ceramic particles in a composite to make a very high quality superconducting composite material with Tc and high Jc.

FIG. 16 shows a view of a superconducting composite material according to the present invention that solves the above problems. The superconductor composite material has coated HTS ceramic particles 50 each having a noble metal coating 54. The coating 54 preferably completely surrounds each HTS ceramic particle 50. The noble metal coating 54 is preferably metallic and electrically conductive. The HTS ceramic particles 50 and coating 54 are disposed in a metal matrix material 52. The metal matrix material has a λ greater than 0.2, preferably greater than 0.5, more preferably greater than 1.0. All else being equal, the higher the λ of the metal matrix material, the better. The metal matrix material 52 is preferably selected from the materials listed in Table 2, although it is understood that Table 2 does not necessarily contain all the useful metal matrix materials. Any metal or metal alloy with a high enough λ, adequate ductility, and compatible chemical properties is suitable for use as the metal matrix material.

The HTS ceramic particles preferably have dimensions (not including the coating 54) larger than the superconducting coherence length of the HTS ceramic material. Typically, HTS ceramic materials have coherence lengths of about 1.5-3 nanometers, so the HTS ceramic particles preferably are at least this large. The HTS ceramic particles have dimensions of about 5-500 nanometers. Preferably, the HTS ceramic particles have dimensions of about 3-1000 times the superconducting coherence length of the HTS ceramic, or more preferably, about 3-50 times the coherence length. The best size range depends upon the temperature at which the composite material is used, and the λ and proximity effect decay length of the metal matrix material, among other factors.

The noble coating 54 is preferably made of a noble metal that does not react (i.e., is not oxidized) by contact with the HTS ceramic particles. Preferably, the coating is made of silver, although other metals in Table 6 can be used, as well as alloys of these metals. The metal matrix can include alloys comprising metal s not listed in Table 6. For example, alloys of silver or gold with relatively more reactive metals may be nonreactive with the HTS ceramic. The noble coating 54 serves to prevent chemical reactions (e.g., oxidation) from occurring between the HTS ceramic particles and the metal matrix material 52. The noble coating 54 should be as thin as possible while thick enough to prevent chemical reactions between the HTS ceramic particles and metal matrix material 52. Preferably the noble coating is about 5-50 nanometers thick, but the noble metal coating can also be as thick as 3000 nanometers. Thick noble coatings negatively impact or adversely affect the superconducting properties (e.g., Jc, Tc) of the composite superconducting material.

Silver is the preferred noble metal because it is the least expensive of the metals not oxidized by contact with HTS ceramics. Silver is also preferred because silver oxide is unstable at the modest temperatures used to anneal the HTS ceramic material, further inhibiting the formation and persistence of an oxide layer.

Also, silver is permeable to oxygen at elevated temperature. This is beneficial because the HTS ceramics require a high oxygen content for superconductivity. If oxygen is depleted from the HTS ceramic material, superconductivity is degraded. HTS ceramic particles coated with silver can be replenished with oxygen because silver is permeable to oxygen at elevated temperature. The oxygen content of coated HTS ceramic particles is restored by heating the coated particles in an oxygen atmosphere.

Preferably, the noble metal coating is thinner than the inelastic electron man free path (MFP) in the noble metal at the critical temperature of the superconducting particles. More preferably, the metal coating is thinner than ½ or ¼ of the electron MFP of the coating at the critical temperature of the superconducting particles.

A long MFP allows electrons and holes from the HTS ceramic particles to travel a long distance in the noble metal. This increases the probability that electrons and holes will reach the metal matrix material without collisions and thereby provide a substantial superconducting gap magnitude in the metal matrix material. Silver is also preferred because of its relatively long MFP. Again, it is emphasized that the noble metal coating should be as thin as possible while still providing chemical isolation for the HTS ceramic particles.

Also, it is preferable for the noble metal coating to be thinner than the proximity effect decay length of the noble metal at the critical temperature of the superconducting particles. Proximity effect decay lengths are typically shorter than the MFP for noble metals, and the proximity effect decay length is inversely proportional temperature. The proximity effect decay length is determined by the rate of dephasing of electron and electron-hole wave functions in the noble metal. The dephasing is caused by differences in the electron and hole velocities. The proximity effect decay length is known and understood in the art. Table 7 gives the proximity effect decay lengths for some noble metals 77 Kelvin.

TABLE 7 Proximity Effect Decay Lengths for Some Noble Metals Proximity effect decay Noble Metal length at 77 K Silver 22 nm Gold 22 nm Palladium 27 nm

FIG. 17 illustrates the operation of the embodiments employing HTS ceramic particles 50 with a noble metal coating 54. When cooled below the HTS ceramic Tc, a proximity effect extends into the metal matrix material 52 a certain range illustrated by the circles 36. It is understood that the proximity effect extends through the noble metal coating 54 and into the metal matrix material 52 according to the model explained with reference to FIG. 15. The superconducting gap rebounds in the metal matrix material 52. The proximity effect decays with distance from the HTS particles 50 so that the circles provide an arbitrary measurement of the proximity effect range. The particles 50 are close enough together so that the circles 36 overlap, thereby providing a continuous supercurrent path 38. The overlapping circles means that the particles 50 are coupled by the continuous superconducting path due to the proximity effect. Circle size increases with decreasing noble metal coating thickness.

A method for preparing the HTS ceramic composite superconductor material begins with providing clean HTS ceramic particles of appropriate sizes. The HTS ceramic particles are then coated with a thin uniform coating of noble metal, preferably silver. Silver can be deposited using a number of techniques known in the art such as chemical deposition and vapor deposition. Vapor deposition can be performed by sifting the particles in a vacuum chamber having a partial pressure of silver, for example. Other techniques for forming the noble metal coating are known in the art.

After the HTS ceramic particles are coated with silver, the interior of the HTS ceramic particles can be replenished with oxygen. Replenishment is performed by heating the coated particles in an atmosphere with a partial pressure of oxygen. Since silver is permeable to oxygen at elevated temperatures (300° C. and up), oxygen reaches the ceramic. The best temperature, oxygen pressure, and annealing time are specific to each HTS ceramic and is selected to optimize the superconducting properties of each ceramic. Such annealing techniques for silver coated high Tc ceramics are well known in art. The coated HTS ceramic particles are then thoroughly mixed with particles of the metal matrix material. The ratio of HTS ceramic particles to metal matrix material particles determines the average spacing between the HTS ceramic particles. The mixing ratio has a large effect upon the superconducting properties of the composite material and should be optimized for a particular application. To form the composite into a wire, the mixture is then disposed in a metal billet and compressed to fuse the mixture into a densely packed composite material. Compression may be performed under vacuum so that void space is minimized. The densely packed composite material is then drawn into a wire using conventional techniques. Of course, the ceramic particles and metal matrix particles can be compressed to form any other shape such as bars, rods, sheets, or plates.

Alternatively, the coated HTS ceramic particles are coated with the metal matrix material. The twice coated HTS ceramic particles are then compressed in a billet and drawn into a wire.

The present invention provides a new class of superconducting composite materials that are designed to maximize the superconducting proximity effect. The metal matrix material is selected based on its electron-phonon coupling coefficient λ, and its chemical compatibility. In cases where a chemical incompatibility exists between the intrinsic superconductor particles and the metal matrix material (as in the case of the HTS ceramics and the Nb₃Sn/lead combination), a noble metal coating protects the superconductor particles. In the case of the HTS ceramics, the metal coating is preferably a noble metal coating that resists oxidation. For many other superconductor particles, the coating can be any metal compatible with other materials in the composite. If the metal coating is thin enough, and has a long enough MFP, the proximity effect causes the surrounding metal matrix material to become superconducting due to the proximity effect.

It is noted that the present invention includes many possible combinations of superconductor particles materials and metal matrix materials. Any ceramic superconductor particles can be combined with any high-λ metal matrix material. If a chemical incompatibility exists in the combination (e.g., the combination causes degradation of the superconductor particles or degradation of the metal matrix material, or an insulating coating forms at the superconductor particle/metal matrix interface), then a chemically-insulating, electrically conductive coating should be provided between the superconductor particles and the metal matrix material. The coating is preferably a noble metal if the ceramic particles are highly reactive, such as many of the HTS ceramics.

For superconductor particle materials that are less reactive than the HTS ceramics, the coating can be made of high λ metals that are readily oxidizable. However, the coating is preferably non-reactive with the particles and the metal matrix material.

The present invention is not limited to the superconductor particle material and metal matrix materials listed herein.

It is not necessary in the present invention to only select materials that do not react at all with one another. A certain amount of reactivity can be tolerated between the different components if the reactivity does not significantly damage the superconducting properties of the composite. For example, Nb₃Sn/lead composite demonstrates some amount of damaging reactivity, but, Nb₃Sn/lead composite is still useful as a superconductor for certain applications and is within the scope of the present invention. The present invention covers any material combinations that do not destroy superconductivity in one of the material components, or does not form electrically insulating layers (e.g., metal oxides) at interfaces between the components.

Wire Manufacture

FIG. 18 to FIG. 25 illustrate how the materials hereinbefore described can be used in manufacturing a three-component wire, according to an embodiment of the invention.

Referring firstly to FIG. 18, a sheet 100 of ductile protective material is provided on which superconductor particles 102 are deposited. The sheet 100 may for example be made of any one of the materials listed in Table 3. The sheet 100 is initially relatively thick for ease of handling and to prevent tearing thereof. The sheet 100 may, for example, be made of silver having a thickness of about 0.05 mm.

The superconductor particles 102 are in granular form and can be made of any one of the HTS materials listed in Table 5.

As shown in FIG. 19, the superconductor particles 102 are spread evenly over a surface provided by the sheet 100. In FIG. 20, another sheet 104 of the same material as the sheet 100 is located over the superconductor particles 102. The sheet 104 typically has the same thickness as the sheet 100. The superconductor particles 102 are thereby located between the sheets 100 and 104 of protective material.

Next, as shown in FIG. 21, a sheet 106 of ductile conductive material is located on the sheet 104 of protective material 104. The sheet 106 may be made of any one of the materials in Table 2. The sheet of protective material 100, the superconductor particles 102, the sheet of protective material 104, and the sheet of conductive material 106 thereby form four layers of a composite sheet 110. The composite sheet 110 has a thickness 112, a width 114, and a length 116 (only a portion of which is shown). The thickness is typically about 1 cm, the length 112 about 1 m, and the width 114 about 20 cm.

The composite sheet 110 has a strip 118 at an edge thereof extending along the length 116 thereof. Another strip 120 is located next to the strip 118, also extending along the length 116, and a further strip 122 is located next to the strip 120, the strip 122 also extending along the length 116. The strip 118 is folded on to the strip 120. The strip 118 is thereby located on top of the strip 120. Folding of the strip 118 onto the strip 120 is allowed for due to ductility of the sheets 100, 104, and 106, and due to the superconductor particles 12 being in singulated granular form. The strip 118 is then folded onto the strip 122 so that the strip 118 is located between the strip 122 and the strip 120. The strips 118, 120, and 122 being folded or rolled onto one another are shown in FIG. 22. Once folded, the composite sheet 110 forms an elongate member 126 having a length 116, a height 128, and a width 130. The height 128 is about 4 cm and is substantially the same as the width 130. Because of folding of the composite sheet 110, the elongate member 126 has a height 128 and a width 130 which are smaller than the width 114 of the composite sheet 110. It should be understood that, although the composite sheet 110 is rolled in the embodiment described, other methods of forming the composite sheet 110 may provide a similar elongate member. The composite sheet 110 may for example, be fan-folded.

The components of the elongate member 126 are located relative to one another so that the superconductor particles 102 are located next to the conductive material 106 on one side thereof and located next to the conductive material 106 on opposing side thereof. The conductive material 106 on each side is separated from the superconductor particles 102 by a respective portion of either the sheet 100 of protective material or the sheet 104 of protective material.

FIG. 23 illustrates further processing of the elongate member 126 wherein the elongate member 126 is rolled into a wire 136. The elongate member 126 is rolled by rollers 138 and other known equipment which reduce the dimensions of the elongate member 126 with a corresponding increase in length thereof. FIG. 24 is a cross-section of the elongate member 126 and FIG. 25 is a cross-section of the wire 136. As mentioned previously, the sheets 100 and 104 are initially relatively thick. Once the dimensions of the elongate member 126 are reduced to form the wire 136, the sheets 100 and 104 also reduce in thickness. The thickness of the sheets 100 and 104 of the wire 136 are about ten times the decay length of the material thereof. The superconductor particles 102 can induce the conducting material 106 to a superconductive state through the sheet 100 or 104. The exemplary 1 m by 4 cm elongate member 126 may for example be drawn into wire 136 having a diameter of 1 mm, a length of 1.6 km and have sheets 100 and 104 of silver that are reduced to 0.05 mm in thickness.

FIG. 26 is a cross-sectional view on 26-26 of FIG. 25. It can be seen that the sheets 100, 104, and 106, and the superconductor particles extend continuously through the wire 136. FIG. 26 only shows a section of the wire 136 but it should be understood that the wire 136 may be kilometers long with a continuous construction as shown in FIG. 26. It should, in particular, be noted that the conductive material 106 extends through continuous kilometers of the wire 136.

A respective superconductor particle 102A induces a region of the conductive material 140A to a superconductive state through the sheet 100. Another superconductor particle 102B induces another region 140B in this conductive material 106 to a superconductive state. The region 140B overlaps the region 140A, thereby providing a superconductive link from the region 140A to the region 140B. In a similar manner, another superconductor particle 102C induces another region 104C of the conductive material 106 to a superconductive state, and subsequent regions are also induced to a superconductive state. The regions overlap one another so that an unbroken superconductive path in the conductive material 106 is provided through the entire length of the wire 136. The wire 136 can thus conduct current in a superconductive nature when the wire 136 is cooled to an appropriate temperature wherein the superconductor particles 102 are superconductive.

The embodiment described with reference to FIG. 18 to FIG. 26 is for a three-component wire including (i) an HTS superconductor material from Table 5, (ii) a conductive material from Table 2, and (iii) a sheet of protective material from Table 3 located between the HTS superconductor material and the conductive material. Such a wire allows for the proximity effect to be employed utilizing a reactive or brittle HTS superconductor material.

In another embodiment an intrinsic superconductor material from Table 1 can be used together with a conductive material from Table 2. The intrinsic superconductor materials of Table 1 have the advantage that they are not as reactive as HTS superconductor materials, so that a wire embodiment of an intrinsic superconductor material and a conductive material can be formed without a sheet of protective material between the intrinsic superconductor material and the conductive material. Such a wire is shown in FIG. 27 and can be formed by spreading particles 182 of brittle superconductor material over a sheet 184 of ductile conductive material and then folding or rolling the sheet 184 of conductive material into an elongate member so that the particles 182 of superconductor material are trapped between successive layers of the sheet 184 of ductile material, whereafter the elongate member is drawn into the wire 180. The wire 180 requires fewer components while still having a conductive material with an electron-phonon coupling coefficient of at least 0.2.

FIG. 28 is a cross section on 28-28 in FIG. 27. It can be seen from FIG. 28 that the particles 182 of superconductor material are located directly against the sheet 184 of conductive material. The conductive material of the sheet 184 is driven to a superconductive state by the superconductor particles 182 without a protective sheet located between the particles 182 and the sheet 184.

Magnesium Diboride as a Superconductor Material

It has been found that magnesium diboride (MgB₂) displays superconductive properties at 40K, a temperature at which helium is a vapor. It is also believed that magnesium diboride can be combined with any one of the conductive matrix materials in Table 2 without attacking the conductive matrix material. There is thus no need for an intermediate protective layer. Particles of the magnesium diboride can be located in direct contact to a conductive material discussed with reference to FIG. 1 or 28.

It may be possible to use metallic borides other than magnesium diboride. Other metallic borides such as planar diborides may prove to be useful.

It may also be that a desirable conductive material is attacked by magnesium diboride or another planar diboride. Such an embodiment may require a protective material between the superconductive material and the conductive material.

Gallium-Based Superconducting Nanocomposite (ScNc)

A superconducting nanocomposite (ScNc) may be used which uses gallium or a gallium-based alloy as a ductile matrix metal which is driven to superconductivity by the proximity effect.

High current density ScNc wires and tapes can be fabricated using metal matrix materials that are chemically compatible with the superconductor particles and that possess a high lambda. In general, the higher the lambda (λ), the longer the mean free path, and the longer the proximity effect decay length, the higher the current-carrying capacity of the final composite.

Gallium metal and its alloys are of particular interest because of the unique properties of gallium itself. In particular:

1) Gallium is a liquid at approximately 30° C. and has a tendency to supercool. This allows for a very uniform distribution of the gallium or gallium-based alloy throughout the ScNc. This may be achieved, for example, by ball milling, planetary milling, or attrition milling of a gallium or the gallium-based alloy with an appropriate superconducting powder.

2) Gallium or gallium-based alloys possess very high lambda values. The electron-phonon coupling in these materials is known to be extremely high (>2). This results in a very high proximity-induced gap within the metal matrix and very high critical currents.

Gallium is also known to exhibit polymorphism. The different crystal structures of this material have different lambda values, and the gallium or gallium-based metal matrix can be prepared to possess substantially the form of gallium or gallium-based alloy that has the highest lambda.

In particular, it is well-known that amorphous or disordered materials possess higher lambdas than their more ordered counterparts. Gallium and its alloys can easily be made to be substantially amorphous, thus increasing lambda and the magnitude of the induced gap in the metal matrix.

ScNc wires with an amorphous, high-lambda metal matrix will have higher critical current densities than ScNc wires with substantially crystalline metal matrix materials.

3) Gallium and gallium-based alloys are well-known to wet the surface of many materials including ceramics. This ability to adhere to the surface of ceramic or other brittle superconducting materials increases the total superconductor/metal surface area of the composite and since the magnitude of the proximity effect is proportional to the surface area, metal matrix materials that wet the surface of the superconductor will make higher current carrying capacity ScNc based wires.

A 20% by vol. gallium or gallium-based ScNc wire may be fabricated using the following method:

1) 2.54 grams of MgB₂ superconducting powder and 2.32 grams of liquid or solid Ga metal are combined in a planetary ball mill (80 ml vial) with 20 Si3N4 balls (10 mm diameter).

2) The composite powder is milled for a total of 4 hours, at 300 RPM. A process control agent may be used during the milling process if there is excessive cold welding during the mill. The use of process control agents is well-known in the field of mechanical alloying.

3) The milled powder is then loaded into a copper billet and sealed. The billet itself can be materials other than copper, such as niobium, silver, iron, nickel or any other material that is compatible with the ScNc composite and which lends itself to the deformation process.

4) The packed billet is drawn or rolled to a final geometry using well-known wire fabrication methods. Single or multifilament wire or tapes may be made by these methods.

The final conductor consists of a metallic sheath (usually copper) and filament(s) of a magnesium diboride/(gallium or gallium-based) metal matrix composite.

FIG. 29 shows the increased performance of the gallium-based ScNc tape relative to Indium-based ScNc tape. Both tapes use MgB₂ and the superconducting material, but it is clear that the gallium-based ScNc conductor has much higher engineering current densities than the Indium-based ScNc.

Gallium or gallium-based conductors may be made in a variety of geometries (e.g., single multifilament, round wire or tape) with a variety of superconducting powders.

The only requirement is that the superconductor/(gallium or gallium-based) metal interface be substantially non-reactive with respect to the formation of an insulating barrier such that the proximity effect may exist in the (gallium or gallium-based) metal layer adjacent to the superconductor.

Depending on the superconductor, the gallium-based metal, and the composite preparation conditions, these procedures may need to be carried out under inert atmospheric conditions.

Flux Pump

FIG. 30 illustrates one layer 198A of a flux pump 200, according to an embodiment of an invention that includes the materials and wires hereinbefore described. The layer 198A of the flux pump 200 includes a superconducting coil 202, and first and second superconducting switches 204 and 206, respectively.

The superconducting coil 202 is a helical coil that is made from the wire as hereinbefore described. Because of the need for the superconducting coil 202 to be superconducting when generating a magnetic field, it is preferable that the conductive material that is driven to a superconductor state be a Type II superconductor. For example, the material 184 in FIG. 27 should be a Type II superconductor. The superconducting particles of the superconducting coil 202 are ideally made of MgB₂ and the proximity metal can be a Type II superconducting metal such as Niobium or a Gallium alloy.

Each one of the superconducting switches 204 and 206 has a proximity metal that is ideally a Type I superconductor. The superconducting particles of the superconducting switches 204 and 206 are preferably made of MgB₂ and the proximity metal is preferably gallium.

The superconducting switches 204 and 206 are connected in parallel to leads 208 and 210. The leads 208 and 210 are connected to opposing terminals of the superconducting coil 202. The superconducting coil 202 and the first superconducting switch 204 are located in a first loop that excludes the second superconducting switch 206. The superconducting coil 202 and the second superconducting switch 206 are located in a second loop that excludes the first superconducting switch 204.

The entire layer 198A of flux pump 200 is jointless. Various manufacturing techniques may be employed to manufacture the layer 198A of the flux pump 200 without joints between each superconducting switch 204 or 206 and the superconducting coil 202.

As mentioned, the metal matrix material of the superconducting coil 202 is different from the metal matrix material of the superconducting switches 204 and 206. The wire that forms both the superconducting coil 202 and the superconducting switches 204 and 206 can be gradually modified by including an appropriate Ga-based alloy material for the superconducting coil 202 and excluding pure gallium, and including pure gallium for the superconducting switches 204 and 206 and excluding an appropriate Ga-based alloy material, for example.

It is important to understand that the layer 198A of flux pump 200 is a fully superconducting system and that persistent currents may exist in the first and the second fully superconducting loops. The superconducting switches 204 and 206 are superconducting conductors that can be made to be in a normal resistive state through either increased temperature or an externally applied magnetic field. When the switches are “closed,” they are fully superconducting. When the switches are “open,” there is a small but finite resistance.

The superconducting switches 204 and 206 are preferably switched by exposing them to alternating magnetic fields. This is made possible because a Type I superconductor can hold a smaller magnetic field than a Type II superconductor. The Type II superconductor of the superconducting coil 202 will however hold a larger magnetic field than the Type I superconductor and not shut down when it is exposed to the alternating magnetic fields.

With the first superconducting switch 204 closed (i.e. superconducting) an amount of flux is enclosed in the first loop and a persistent current exists in the first loop. Because the second superconducting switch 206 is not superconducting, an additional flux can be added to the “open” second loop. When the second superconducting switch 206 is then closed and the first superconducting switch 204 is opened, this additional flux is added to the fully superconducting second loop containing the second superconducting switch 206. By then closing the first superconducting switch 204 and opening the second superconducting switch 206, the total amount of the flux and the additional flux is “pumped” into the first loop that contains the first superconducting switch 204. By repeating this process, ever increasing magnetic flux can be inserted into the circuit making up the flux pump 200 and making it possible to induce very large currents in the superconducting coil 202 without the need for a high current electrical connections. Because of the choice of materials, high critical current densities and low magnetic fields can be achieved in the first and second superconducting switches 204 and 206, whereas high current densities and high critical magnetic fields can be achieved in the superconducting coil 202.

FIG. 31 illustrates the complete assembly of the flux pump 200 of FIG. 30. The flux pump 200 includes a plurality of layers 198A to F that are identical. The superconducting coils 202 of the layers 198A to F are electrically isolated from one another. The superconducting coil 202 are aligned with one another such that a first turn of the superconducting coil 202 of the layer 198A is positioned directly below a first turn of the superconducting coil 202 of the layer 198B, a first turn of the superconducting coil 202 of the layer 198C, and so on. A second turn of each superconducting coil 202 is also aligned with a second turn of every other coil. The second layer 198B is thus above the first layer 198A and the layers 198B and 198A are electrically separated from one another. The magnetic fields of all the revolutions of each coil 200 and the coils 200 of all the layers 198A to F enforce one another to form a combined magnetic field.

The number of turns that are created in the arrangement is thus a product of the number of turns of each superconducting coil 202 and the number of layers 198A to F. A very dense arrangement of turns can be achieved for the flux pump 200. Additionally, the entire height of the flux pump 200 is still relatively small because there are only six layers 198A to F of relatively thin wire. The particular arrangement and configuration of the superconducting coils 202 allow for a magnetic field to be created that has a shape similar to a permanent magnet having a similar form factor. The flux pump 200, however, has a magnetic field density that is much higher than a permanent magnet of a similar size and shape.

The flux pump 200 further includes a switching circuit 212. The switching circuit 212 includes a plurality of magnetic actuators 214. Each magnetic actuator 214 is in the form of a respective electromagnetic coil that surrounds a respective one of the switches 204 or 206 in FIG. 30. By individually actuating the magnetic actuators 214, current is pumped into a respective coil 202 as hereinbefore described. A respective pair of magnetic actuators 214 is located in a respective layer and the pairs of magnetic actuators 214 are located in respective layers above one another. The respective pairs of magnetic actuators 214 can be conveniently connected to the respective coils 202 because the coils 202 are flat coils that are located in separate vertical planes.

FIG. 32 illustrates a flux pump 218 according to an alternate embodiment of the invention, including a plurality of helical coils 220A, 220B and 220C. Each coil 220A, B or C has a respective superconducting loop, only a portion of which is shown, having a plurality of revolutions 222. The revolutions 222 of one coil, e.g. the coil 220A, are at different levels consecutively above one another. The coil 220B is inserted into the coil 220A and the coil 220C is inserted into the coil 220B. The total number of revolutions, or turns, thus equals the number of layers of revolutions 222 multiplied by the number of coils 220A, B and C. The flux pump 218 provides similar advantages to the flux pump 200 of FIG. 31 in that a large number of turns can be created within in a small form factor and that a magnetic field having a shape similar to that of a similar permanent magnet can be generated. However, because each coil 220A, B and C is not in separate layer, it may be more difficult to design a switching circuit within a small form factor for the flux pump 218 and to connect the switching circuit to the coils 220A, B and C of the flux pump 218.

FIG. 33 illustrates a machine in the form of a generator 224 according to an embodiment of the invention. The generator 224 includes a rotor 226, a bearing 228 and a stator 230.

The rotor 226 includes a rotor structure 232 having a rotation axis 234, a first set of magnetic components (only one of which is shown), in the form of the flux pump 200, a cooling system 236, and components of a power circuit 238. All components above a line 240 are mounted, either directly or indirectly to the rotor structure 232 so as to rotate together with the rotor structure 232 as part of the rotor 226.

The cooling system 236 includes a motor 242, a compressor 244, a heat exchanger 246, an expansion valve 248, a cryocooler 250, and a container 252.

The entire flux pump 200 is enclosed within the container 252. The compressor 244, heat exchanger 246, expansion valve 248, and cryocooler 250 are located inline after one another. A cooling fluid follows a closed path through the compressor 244, heat exchanger 246, expansion valve 248, and cryocooler 250, and then back to the compressor 244. The motor 242 is connected to the compressor 244 so that the compressor 244 is driven by the motor 242 when electric power is provided to the motor 242.

The compressor 244 increases the pressure of the cooling fluid, which also increases its temperature. Heat is removed from the cooling fluid by the heat exchanger 246. The expansion valve 248 expands the cooling fluid to a lower pressure, which also reduces its temperature. The cryocooler 250 is located within the container 252 and all other components of the cooling system 236 are located outside the container 252. The container 252 is filled with a cryogenic liquid that covers both the flux pump 200 and the cryocooler 250. Heat covects from the flux pump 200 to the cryogenic liquid in the container 252 and then from the cryogenic liquid to the cryocooler 250. The temperature of the cooling liquid thus increases within the cryocooler 250. The cooling liquid then flows from the cryocooler 250 back to the compressor 244.

The stator 230 includes a stator structure 254, a first set of magnetic components (only one of which is shown), in the form of an electromagnetic coil 256, and further components of the power circuit 238. The electromagnetic coil 256 and components of the power circuit 238 below the line 240 are all mounted, either directly or indirectly, to the stator structure 254.

In another embodiment the flux pump is externally attached to the cryocooler and heat conducts from the flux pump to a body of the cryocooler and then convects from the body of the cryocooler to the liquid flowing through the cryocooler. In both embodiments the flux pump is thermally coupled to the liquid so that heat transfers from the flux pump to the liquid or other fluid in the cryocooler.

The stator structure 254 is symmetrical about the rotation axis 234. The bearing 228 surrounds the rotation axis 234. The rotor structure 232 is mounted through the bearing 228 to the stator structure 254. The stator structure 254 is located in a stationary position and the bearing 228 allows for rotation of the rotor structure 232 about the rotation axis 234 relative to the stator structure 254.

The power circuit 238 includes an electric power supply 260, an electric coupling device 262 including a stationary power provider 264 and a moving power receiver 266, a generator 268, a battery 270, a power controller 272, and first and second power modulators 274 and 276. The electric power supply 260 is connected to the stationary power provider 264. The stationary power provider 264 is coupled to the moving power receiver 266. In a simplest configuration, the power provider 264 and power receiver 266 are a ring and a brush that make direct electric contact. In a preferred embodiment, the stationary power provider 264 and moving power receiver 266 are components of an electric exciter that couple remotely to one another without direct contact. The electric coupling device 262 allows for electric power to be provided from the electric power supply 260 to the moving power receiver 266.

The generator 268 and power modulators 274 and 276 are electrically connected to the moving power receiver 266. The generator 268 is electrically connected to the battery 270, which is connected to the power controller 272 to power the power controller 272. The power modulators 274 and 276 are connected to the power controller 272 and are under the control of the power controller 272. The power controller 272 typically includes a processor with a small program stored thereon for controlling the power modulators 274 and 276.

The power modulator 274 is connected to the switching circuit 212. The power modulator 276 is electrically connected to the motor 242.

In use, electric power is provided from the electric power supply 260 through the electric coupling device 262 to the power modulators 274 and 276. The power controller 272 regulates power provided through the power modulators 274 and 276 to the switching circuit 212 and motor 242 respectively. The cooling system 236 then cools the flux pump 200 while the switching circuit 212 creates a superconducting current within the superconducting coil 202.

The superconducting coil 202 creates a magnetic field 280 that couples to the electromagnetic coil 256. No electric power is created within the electromagnetic coil 256 when the rotor 226 is in a stationary position relative to the stator 230. A shaft (not shown) is attached to the stator structure 254 and rotates the stator structure 254 about the rotation axis 234 relative to the rotor structure 232. Such movement moves the magnetic field 280 generated by the superconducting coil 202 through the electromagnetic coil 256 and generates an electric current within the electromagnetic coil 256. Leads 282 and 284 are connected to opposing terminals of the electromagnetic coil 256 so that current generated within the electromagnetic coil 256 conducts to a location remote from the stator 230.

As shown in FIG. 34, the rotor 226 includes a first set of flux pumps 200 that are mounted to the rotor structure 232. As further illustrated, each flux pump 200 has its own cooling system 236. Each flux pump 200 is thus enclosed by a separate container 252. Similarly, the electromagnetic coil 256 in FIG. 33 is one of a set of electromagnetic coils that are mounted to the stator structure 254. The magnetic field 280 generated by one flux pump 200 thus moves from one electromagnetic coil 256 to the next. The leads 282 of all the electromagnetic coils 256 are connected to a single bus and the leads 284 are all connected to a separate bus. As further illustrated in FIG. 34, each combination of flux pump 200 and cooling system 236 has a respective cover mounted thereover to the rotor structure 232 for purposes of protecting the components of the respective flux pump 200 and cooling system 236.

The flux pumps 200 generate larger magnetic fields than what can be achieved with permanent magnets. As such, the electric current that can be generated for a given amount of mechanical power provided to the rotor 226 is larger when the flux pumps 200 are used when compared to permanent magnets. Rotating flux pumps are achievable by incorporating part of the power circuit 238 into the rotor 226 and with the components of the cooling system 236 incorporated into and rotating with the rotor 226.

FIG. 35 illustrates a machine in the form of a motor 290, according to an alternate embodiment of the invention. The motor 290 includes a stator 292, a bearing 294 and a rotor 296. The stator 292 includes a stator component 298, the flux pump 200, the cooling system 236 and the entire power circuit 238 mounted directly or indirectly to the stator component 298. All components below a line 300 are thus mounted to the stator component 298.

The rotor 296 includes a rotor component 302 and a permanent magnet 304. The permanent magnet 304 is mounted to the rotor component 302. The rotor component 302 is mounted through the bearing 294 for rotation relative to the stator component 298 about a rotation axis 306.

In use, the magnetic field 280 generated by the superconducting coil 202 couples with the permanent magnet 304. The superconducting coil 202 is switched on and off in an alternating manner and the magnetic field 280 also switches on and off. Continuous reversal of the magnetic field 280 within the permanent magnet 304 creates a force through the permanent magnet 304 that causes rotation of the rotor component 296 about the rotation axis 306.

While certain exemplary embodiments have been described and shown in the accompanying drawings, it is to be understood that such embodiments are merely illustrative and not restrictive of the current invention, and that this invention is not restricted to the specific constructions and arrangements shown and described since modifications may occur to those ordinarily skilled in the art. 

What is claimed:
 1. A flux pump comprising: a plurality of superconducting components arranged to form one or more superconducting loops, said one or more superconducting loops including a plurality of sections in respective revolutions in a first layer such that a first one of the sections is located within a second one of the sections in the first layer.
 2. The flux pump of claim 1, wherein the superconducting loop includes at least a superconducting coil with first and second sections in the first layer forming part of the superconducting coil.
 3. The flux pump of claim 2, wherein the superconducting components include at least a first and second superconducting switches, the first superconducting switch and the superconducting coil being within a first superconducting loop that excludes the second superconducting switch, and the second superconducting switch and the superconducting coil being within a second superconducting loop that excludes the first superconducting coil.
 4. The flux pump of claim 3, wherein the first and second loops are jointless.
 5. The flux pump of claim 3, wherein the superconducting coil and superconducting switches are each made of a superconductor that includes: particles made of a superconductive material; and a conductive material selected to be driven to a superconductive state when in proximity to the superconductive material, an unbroken section of the conductive material being located sufficiently close to a plurality of the particles to be driven to a superconductive state by the superconductive material.
 6. The flux pump of claim 5, wherein the conductive material of the superconducting switches is a Type I superconductor and the conductive material of the superconducting coils is a Type II superconductor.
 7. The flux pump of claim 5, wherein the superconductive material is magnesium diboride.
 8. The flux pump of claim 7, wherein the conductive material at least includes gallium.
 9. The flux pump of claim 5, wherein the conductive material is in contact with the superconductive material.
 10. The flux pump of claim 2, wherein the superconducting components form at least a second superconducting loop including a superconducting coil having a plurality of sections in respective revolutions in a second layer above the first layer such that a first one of the sections of the second superconducting loop is located within a second one of the sections of the second superconducting loop.
 11. The flux pump of claim 10, wherein the first and second superconducting loops are electrically separated from one another.
 12. The flux pump of claim 10, wherein magnetic fields generated by the first and second superconducting loops to form a combined magnetic field.
 13. The flux pump of claim 2, further comprising: a switching circuit that has first and second actuators that switch the first and second switches respectively.
 14. A machine comprising: a rotor including: a rotor structure having a rotation axis; a first set of magnetic components secured to the rotor structure about the rotation axis; and at least one cooling system having: a compressor secured to the rotor structure; a heat exchanger secured to the rotor structure inline after the compressor; an expansion valve secured to the rotor structure inline after the heat exchanger; and a cryocooler secured to the rotor structure inline after the expansion valve and before the compressor, at least one of the magnetic components being thermally coupled to a fluid flowing through the cryocooler so that heat transfers from the flux pump to the fluid.
 15. The machine of claim 14, further comprising: a bearing; a stator, including: a stator structure, the rotor structure being mounted through the bearing for rotation relative to the stator structure; and a second set of magnetic components mounted to the stator structure.
 16. The machine of claim 15, wherein the magnetic components of the second set are electromagnetic coils and the magnetic components of the first set are each a respective flux pump that include a plurality of magnetic components arranged to form at least one superconducting loop.
 17. The machine of claim 16, further comprising: a respective switching circuit coupled to a respective flux pump.
 18. The machine of claim 15, wherein the magnetic components of the second set are electromagnetic coils and the magnetic components of the first set are each a respective flux pump that include a plurality of magnetic components arranged to form at least one superconducting loop, further comprising: an electric power supply positioned in a stationary location relative to the stator component; and an electric coupling device including a stationary power provider, and a power receiver mounted for rotation with the rotor structure, electric power being provided from the electric power supply through the stationary power provider and the moving power receiver to the switching circuits.
 19. A machine comprising: first and second structures that are mounted for movement relative to one another; and a first and second set of magnetic components mounted to the first and second structures respectively so that a magnetic field generated by a magnet of the first set couples to a magnet of the second set, wherein at least one of the magnets is a flux pump that includes a plurality of superconducting components arranged to form at least one superconducting loop.
 20. The machine of claim 19, wherein the superconducting loop includes at least a superconducting coil with first and second sections on the first layer forming part of the superconducting coil.
 21. The machine of claim 20, wherein the superconducting components include at least a first and second superconducting switches, the first superconducting switch and the superconducting coil being within a first superconducting loop that excludes the second superconducting switch, and the second superconducting switch and the superconducting coil being within a second superconducting loop that excludes the first superconducting coil.
 22. The machine of claim 21, wherein the first and second loops are jointless.
 23. The machine of claim 21, wherein the superconducting coil and superconducting switches are each made of a superconductor that includes: particles made of a superconductive material; and a conductive material selected to be driven to a superconductive state when in proximity to the superconductive material, an unbroken section of the conductive material being located sufficiently close to a plurality of the particles to be driven to a superconductive state by the superconductive material.
 24. The machine of claim 23, wherein the conductive material of the superconducting switches is a Type I superconductor and the conductive material of the superconducting coils is a Type II superconductor.
 25. The machine of claim 19, further comprising: at least one cooling system having: a compressor secured to the rotor structure; a heat exchanger secured to the rotor structure inline after the compressor; an expansion valve secured to the rotor structure inline after the heat exchanger; and a cryocooler secured to the rotor structure inline after the expansion valve and before the compressor, at least one of the magnetic components being thermally coupled to a fluid flowing through the cryocooler so that heat transfers from the flux pump to the fluid.
 26. The machine of claim 19, wherein the first structure is a rotor structure and the second structure is a stator structure, the rotor structure rotatably mounted to the stator structure.
 27. The machine of claim 26, wherein the flux pump is one of the magnetic components of the first set.
 28. The machine of claim 19, wherein the magnetic components of the second set are electromagnetic coils and the magnetic components of the first set are each a respective flux pump that includes a plurality of magnetic components arranged to form at least one superconducting loop.
 29. The machine of claim 28, further comprising: a respective switching circuit coupled to a respective flux pump.
 30. The machine of claim 28, wherein the magnetic components of the second set are electromagnetic coils and the magnetic components of the first set are each a respective flux pump that include a plurality of magnetic components arranged to form at least one superconducting loop, further comprising: an electric power supply positioned in a stationary location relative to the stator component; and an electric coupling device including a stationary power provider, and a moving power receiver mounted for rotation with the rotor structure, electric power being provided from the electric power supply through the stationary power provider and the moving power receiver to the switching circuits. 